THE RISE OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE

BY: BRITTANY ROBINSON

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROYAL NAVY

- The Royal Navy is the oldest of the British armed services and from the mid 1700’s well into the 1900’s, it was the most powerful navy in the world and was the most significant facet in establishing the British Empire as the prevailing world power from 1815 until the mid 20^th century (Roger, p.10-19). Although the Royal Navy began to develop as early as 1649 the eventual power they would hold was not foreseen. The power of the sea laid within the knowledge and understanding Portugal and then Spain encompassed when it came to ship design and the crucial navigational and long distance skills required to explore and commercially exploit the routes that they discovered. And more importantly, Britain didn’t even follow in power from these two- the French and Dutch were still ahead in their skills, understanding, and materials. This situation would not really be transformed until the eighteenth century with the Seven Years War (1756-1763) and the introduction of revolutionary banking techniques by the Dutch. This was a substantial occurrence for two reasons: 1.) The formation of the Bank of England and other sophisticated banking establishments allowed the British to obtain loans facilitating the formation of the evolving Navy. 2.) This enabled the Royal Navy establish themselves as an actual threat to the powerful Kingdom of France. The prevailing reason, or at least one of great significance, for the French Revolution was due to their resulting struggles due to the huge quantities they had invested in challenging the Royal Navy in aim to help the American Revolution. Consequently, the result was the continued strains between France and Britain in the Napoleonic times. The battle of Trafalgar in 1805 could be defined as the defining naval battle for that century resulting in a chain of events that eventually left the Royal Navy as the controller of the sea until its slow decline beginning with WWI- no nautical power with even a hope to come close to challenging British authority of navy communication and trade routes undoubtedly easing the challenge of implementing European imperialism. At the height of the Seven Years War the British Navy was the home of 80,000 personnel and 300 ships; by 1812 the Navy had expanded to include 140,000 and 596 cruisers- this was the only time in recorded history that one nation had possessed more than half the worlds warships (Herman p. 45-62).

THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL NAVY

- Being an island nation, the Royal Navy was the Senior Service for a very real reason- control of the seas would be crucial in defending Britain and in allowing Britain to secure such a vast Empire. Domination of the seas was not definitively achieved until 1815, although Britain had been challenging for supremacy since the Seven Years War. The characterization of Britain as the British Empire was definitive in 1815. During the nineteenth century, the Royal Navy was supreme and could deliver soldiers anywhere necessary and also, was able to maintain enough control to ensure they were the only ones with the ability to do so (Kennedy, p.96). The floating gun vessels could be equally intimidating to indigenous leaders who might have contemplated resisting British encroachment or denying access to commercial opportunities. The Royal Navy would ensure the flow of trade vessels and goods to supply Britain’s factories or deliver her products overseas. The Laissez Faire economic model that would enrich Britain could not have existed without the power of the Royal Navy. They controlled the communications and supply lines that made the Empire viable in any meaningful way.

THE RISE OF AN EMPIRE

- The British Empire continued to expand as time went on- the magnitude of its expansion can be slightly grasped with the well-known quote “The sun never sets on the British Empire”- basically, this puts in perspective the power Britain had acquired because it demonstrates since it was in control of such a vast majority of land that the Empire ruled a part of land that the sun was literally always shining on. Its size initially increased significantly with the defeat of the French in the Seven Years War. The American Revolution resulted in a great deal, but not all, of this territory being lost; however, the effects were minimal with the expansion of British interests in India. The victory of the Napoleonic Wars was of fundamental significance in allowing the British to stake claim on naval bases and a great deal more across the world. More importantly, these claims provided as starting points for the immense expansion carried out during the Victorian period. Continuing strides in both medicine and communication enabled the expansion of European imperialism to further claim the continent of Africa in the concluding half of the Nineteenth Century (Kenndy p. 23-96)

THE FALL OF AN EMPIRE

- World War I and World War II marked the period of decline that Britain would eventually succumb to. The true unraveling was not overwhelming following WWI when their control still covered an estimated third of the globe. The Second World War, however, was slightly more overwhelming- Britain would see much imperial territory threatened and would be unable to recover from the geo-political transfers resulting. This would mark the commencement into a period of incurable decline. India was the first, and the initial piece leading to an eventual domino effect, to become independent. Their independence was the result of the non violent but strategic approach employed by ever famous Muhammad. His plan was initiated with the employment of two momentously affective boycotts: one on British salt and the other on British textiles. The economic and emotional unraveling ensured the decline.

SIGNIFICANCE IN AUSTEN’S LIFE

- At its peak, the British Empire was the leading official empire that the world had ever been exposed to; consequently, its authority and influence covered the world manipulating societal change in almost every possible facet. This influence both shined through in her novels and in her life. As J.H. Hubback explains “Austen’s Anglican cleric father looked to the Royal Navy to ensure his two youngest sons’ social and economic security, and dispatched them at the age of twelve to the Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth, intended to give the best possible preparation for successful naval careers. Francis Austen’s grandson and great-granddaughter explain that the Navy was a profession in which it was possible to get on very last. Francis rose to be the Admiral of the Fleet and Charles Rear-Admiral.” (p.37) The close tie with the Royal Navy and her own family was clearly a prevailing reason for Austen Commemorating the Royal Navy and “by implication its impending work to enforce in law over slave trading,” in her novel Persuasion. In this novel she not only uses Anne as the eyes to elaborate on the loyalty and bravery of the naval families but also, to distinguish them above the others encountered. Her hero of the story also appeared more rugged and rough around the edges than those in her previous novels. This novel was written as her last and was completed directly proceeding the defeat of Waterloo.

Works Cited

Black, Jeremy. The British Seaborne Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004.

Herman, Arthur. To Rule the Waves: How the British Navy Shaped the Modern

World. New York: Harper Perrenial, 2005.

Hubback, J.H. and Edith Hubback. Jane Austen’s Sailor Brothers. London: London J. Lane New York J. Lane Co., 1906.

Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery 2^nd Ed. New York: Humanity Books Co., 1976.

Roger, N.A.M. The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649- 1815. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2005.

Till, Jeffrey. The Development of British Naval Thinking: Essays in Memory of Bryan McLaren Ranft. London: Taylor & Francis Routledge, 2006.

White, Gabrielle. Jane Austen in the Context of Abolition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishing Co. 2006.

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Dances and dancing are frequent topics in Jane  Austen’s work. 

    But how did they learn all those dances?

As the movement towards larger group dances increased, so did the need for technical dance manuals and dance masters.  People had to learn the new contredances.  Technical manuals not only included instructions on how to perform the new contredances, but also instruction on how dance halls should be arranged, how dancers should stand, as well as instruction on the proper use of fashion.  Dance etiquette would also be included in the manuals:  ladies could never invite a gentleman to dance, a formal introduction must be made for an invitation to be given to dance, upon refusing one gentleman a lady could not dance with others (a mistake that occurred in Evelina), and partners must entertain one another while dancing

            Social dances were a mixture of Baroque and early Romantic ballet.  As the eighteenth century progressed the dances became less complicated.  They were usually arranged for a group of four couples that would dance specific figures that alternated with additional figures.  Dance instructions were found in technical manuals.  The manuals explained what steps were to be used, in which direction the movement took place, and the rhythmic quality of each step.  

These are two examples of a manual for the figures for a Rigadoone. 

One of the most famous and well-known writers and publishers of dance manuals is John Playford.  His book, The English Dancing-Master, is an immense source for eighteenth century English social dance.  The books last edition contained roughly seven hundred dances.  Playford describes the “art of dancing” as one that the ancient Greeks thought of as commendable and he believes is important for the current upper class by “making the body active and strong, gracefull in deportment, and a quality very much beseeming a Gentleman” (The Dancing Master).  Another manual states, “Civilized society is agreed now-a-days that it is necessary to a graceful carriage that one should learn to dance…to-day everybody who pretends to the slightest acquaintance with good society recognizes the necessity of learning to dance” (Cartier).  

 The links below will direct you to a film clip from the  library of congress that demonstrate a step combination.

Step combinations for figures balance and tour de mains.  020c

Even though Darcy argues that “every savage can dance” (Pride and Prejudice) it is more apparent that poor dancing as seen in Mr. Collins and the younger Bennets is a more pressing and disgraceful event.  The rule that partners must entertain one another while dancing may be one of the reasons that Elizabeth Bennet always spoke while dancing. 

Works Cited

“Cartier and Baron’s Practical illustrated waltz instructor, ball room guide, and call book.  Giving ample directions for dancing every kind of square and round dances, together with cotillons—including the newest and most popular figures of “the german”.”  1879.  Library of Congress. 13 April 2009  http://memory.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?ammem/musdi:@field(DOCID+@lit(M1821).

“Early Nineteenth-Century Quadrille:  Step combinations for figures balance and tour de mains.”  Library of Congress.  13 April 2009  <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/musdivid/021.mpg>.

“Late Eighteenth-Century Social Dance.”  Library of Congress. 13 April 2009  <http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/dihtml/diessay5.hrml>.

“John Playford.” 2009  Encyclopaedia Britannica.  13 April 2009  <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/464415/John-Playford>.

Ross, Josephine and Henrietta Webb.  Jane Austen’s Guide to Good Manners:  Compliments, Charades & Horrible Blunders.  New York:  Bloomsbury USA, 2006. 

“The Dancing Master, 1651-1728.” 13 April 2009  <http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~flip/contriv/dance/playford.html#Playford_57_55>.  

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Marriage began to change as England entered in to the 18th century. Marriage no longer was solely up to the discretion of parents with no say from their children. This shift was due to the redistribution of power between parents and children. Their were four kinds of power distributions between parents and children present in British society at the time.
The first power distribution was parents making the choice of a match for their child without the consent or opinion of their child. Parents believed they knew what and who was best for their child. It was believed at the time that mutual compatibility was essential to keep a marriage together. Although the two may not immediately take to each other, it was believed that this could be acquired over time. This was accepted in most deferential cultures at the time.
The second was the ability of the child to veto or say no to the match picked by their parents. Most times this power was reserved solely for men and rarely did I women have such an option. This is seen in Pride and Prejudice when Elizabeth refuses her mother’s plea to marry Mr. Collins. It is also seen in Mansfield Park when Fanny refuses the hand of Henry Crawford despite her uncle Sir Thomas Bertram’s wishes.
The third was the child’s ability to choose their spouse. Due to the rise of individualism during this time it became more common. Their were limitations however and children were expected to pick someone of their same social and financial background. The parents still held the power to say no to the match. This form of power distribution is shown in most of Austen’s books, in which the parent, most always the father, or guardian had the ultimate say. In Pride and Prejudice Mr. Bennett had to give his blessing before Elizabeth or Jane were allowed to marry Mr. Darcy or Charles although they had already said yes to their proposals.
The fourth and last power distribution was a child’s ability to choose whomever they wished to marry and merely told their parents of their choice. This option did not appear in British culture until this time and was not common amongst the higher classes. This form of power distribution was not common amongst Austen’s novels. Harriett Smith is able to do this when she ultimately decides to marry Robert Martin. This is also due to her not having a relationship with her parents and from being of a more humble background.

Sources

Stone, Lawrence. The Family, Sex and Marriage In England 1500-1800. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1987.

Austin, Jane. Jane Austin, The Complete Novels. New York: Penguin Books, 2006.

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Companionate Marriage

In the late 17^th and 18^th century changes were slowly evolving concerning the nature of marital relationships.  The popularity of the arranged marriage began to give way to a new concept called the companionate marriage, where the partners were chosen for love, instead of social or financial considerations.  This choosing of partners first gained notoriety among the lower classes according to bourgeois writer Daniel Defoe, who declared in 1727 that these marriages tended to be happier because they have the advantage “to chose and refuse” (Stone 326), whereas many aristocratic marriages were still being arranged.  More and more people began agreeing with Defoe’s sentiment that “Matrimony without love is the cart before the horse” (Stone 326).  Jane Austen expresses this same sentiment through many of her novels.

Elizabeth Bennet refused a marriage of convenience to Mr. Collins because she desired to marry for love, in what would be considered a companionate marriage.  This was of course the opposite choice her best friend Charlotte made when she accepted Mr. Collins proposal and the marriage of convenience he offered her.  Clearly, Austen seems to be a champion of the companionate marriage.

However, she acknowledges the times in which she lives by writing such often quoted lines as “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife”(Austen 43). Here Austen pokes fun at the necessity for women and men to marry well, but still acknowledges it is a reality of the times.

By the end of the 18^th century, the beginning trend for newly married couples was to immediately set up housekeeping on their own, while many were also choosing to live in a different town from their parents and family. This new way of looking at marriage as companions and best friends was affecting not only individual unions, but also many long accepted customs and other areas of society.

Social Class and Companionate Marriage:

During this period companionate marriage was experiencing differing acceptance levels in each of the England’s social classes.

Among the gentry (such as Emma in Austen’s novel Emma) spousal choice was fairly common since their finances were secure and there was no need for a marriage of convenience.  This attitude is displayed when Emma comments to Harriet, “a single woman of good fortune is always respectable.”(Austen 117). Those who chose to be wives were mostly managing the home and children.  Many also had legal settlements to protect their property.

As for the next social class, skilled workers and lower middle class, marriage was already more of a partnership out of necessity, so the companionate marriage was not such a drastic change. The Brangtons in Evelina would fall into this social class.

Marriage at the aristocracy social level remained mainly in the hands of the parents, since both social and financial considerations were still thought important.  This social class of course included the likes of Mr. Darcy, the Bingley’s, and the Bertram’s of Mansfield Park.

Ironically, the companionate marriage was most common among the poor.  This group had no money to contribute to the marriage, were used to very little parental control, and pre-marital sexual relations was much more common.    Fanny Price of Mansfield Park would have been in this social group if she had not been rescued by her wealthy Aunt and Uncle.

It is important to mention that there was almost no marrying across the boundaries of one’s social class.  Fanny Price marrying Edmund Bertram would be one glaring example of crossing over the social class line.

Modes of Address in Marriage:  The common form of address during the late 17^th century between husband and wife was still the formal “Sir” and “Madam”.  However, with the coming of age of the companionate marriage, terms of endearment and the adoption of first names was in vogue.  This signaled an end to some of the stiffness and artificial formality of earlier times.

Property Rights and Status in Marriage: During the 18^th century, many brides’ dowries involved land settlements instead of giving cash to the groom’s father as had previously been the custom.  Thus the bride now helped enrich the assets of the husband and increased the couple’s economic state. 

Another new practice during this time was to insert a clause in the marriage contract for the wife to have access to her own pin money.  This gave her an independence she had never experienced before.

However, most of these changes in property rights and marital status affected wealthy women, not the poor, and William Blackstone’s infamous remark remained true, “the husband and the wife are one, and the husband is that one”(Stone 331).

Anything the wife inherited automatically became the property of her husband. This unjust system explains why charmers such as Wickham and Willowby seek desperately to marry women of wealth.  It’s a quick and easy way to make a nice living.  Willowby may have loved Marianne, but he knew he had to marry someone who could support him in the style to which he had become accustomed. 

 At this time in England, the husband and wife were referred to as “one person in law” (Stone 332).  The couple’s children were solely the property of the husband under the law.   Shockingly, even after his death, a widow had no legal right to her own children.  The wife had no legal rights to her children at any time unless the husband wished to be rid of them.  This outrage lasted until the law was changed in 1839.

The Changing Honeymoon:  During this period, the traditional honeymoon often referred to the couple being brought to the marriage bed by family and friends, and left there to discover their conjugal bliss after the last wedding guest left.  There was even a custom of the bride wearing gloves to bed which the husband removed to symbolize the loss of her virginity.  With the coming of the companionate marriage, by the end of the 18^th century the word honeymoon had taken on the more current meaning of taking a trip alone together as a companionate couple.

Education for Women: During the late 17^th century, women began to demand access to better education.  Many of these women were not radical feminists, but Christian wives who wanted to merely be more educated and better partners or companions to their spouses.

Unfortunately, much of the formal education for women during this period was essentially ornamental… such as sewing, singing, decorating, and other aesthetic training.  A few women were taught languages, but many were told one language was enough for a woman.  Boarding schools were fairly common for girls in 17^th century, but they also tended to teach mostly social skills, with a few exceptions. However, by the end of the 18^th century, a vision was emerging about the ideal education for the women of the gentry and landowners that included history, geography, literature and current affairs.  Of course this improved educational opportunity was intended for the goal of making women better companions for their future husbands. (Guess they forgot… a little knowledge is a dangerous thing!)

Many of Austen’s heroines did not receive a formal education, but were taught at home or self-taught.

Elizabeth Bennet and the Dashwood sisters are examples of what would be considered proper education for their day, even though they did not receive formal schooling. 

Jane Austen herself received much of her schooling at home and was partly self-taught so she certainly identified with these characters.

Companionate marriages encouraged women’s education if only for the reason of making the wives more cultured, and educated mates for their husbands.

The Power Shift: With the rise in popularity of the companionate marriage, fewer marriages were being arranged for power, money, or social status.  This new freedom of marital choice, coupled with the accepted patriarchal custom of male choice in marriage, led to a shift in power favoring the male. This male power shift resulted because in marriage it was the men who did the choosing, not the women. Custom dictated then (and still does to some degree today) that the woman must wait for the man to propose.  Thus the male actually ended up with more power in some ways in the companionate marriage. Stone says of the power shift in the companionate marriage, “This demand for love as the basis of marriage involved a fundamental change in power relations within the family” (Stone 326).

Of course many of Austen’s heroines such as Elizabeth Bennet, Fanny Price, etc. truly have the best of both worlds… the companionate/convenience combo marriage… marrying a rich man for love. (But then that’s what makes it fiction!)

These are just a few of the changes brought about with the emergence of the companionate marriage in 18^th century England.  While there was much good to come from women and men marrying for companionship and love, the companionate marriage was still a long way from equality in marriage.

Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice.  Orchard Park, New York: Broadview Press Ltd., 2002

Austen, Jane. Emma. Orchard Park, New York: Broadview Press Ltd., 2004.

Vic.  Jane Austen’s World.   The Marriage Mart.  17 April 2009.  http://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/

Stone, Lawrence. The Family, Sex and Marriage In England 1500-1800.  New York, New York: Harper and Row, 1977.

Picture Courtesy of Jane Austen’s World.  http://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/

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Scenery and the use of background images to portray a certain mood in the piece is an essential part to any novel, short story or play. The scenery is supposed to not only display the mood but to set up the scene and give the audience some clues as to how they should be interpreting the story. Jane Austen’s Persuasion fits all of these qualities through her description of the town of Lyme Regis.

Jane Austen is known for her use of magnificent scenery in her works. Austen’s sense of how her characters were to be affected by their surroundings is uncanny. She often gives a snapshot of the times and how characters reacted based on their surroundings.

In Persuasion, Austen gives insight into Lyme that only an eyewitness account could give. She described Lyme, in which she visited previously, with great detail and emotion. This helped to further the relationship between Captain Wentworth and Anne.

Lyme : Geography

This city lies 25 miles West of Dorchester in Great Britain which is on the Southern Coastline. The area is known as “The Pearl of Dorset” and stretches 95 miles from Swanage in the East to Exmouth in the West (http://www.lymeregistourism.co.uk). Lyme is very well known for its large fossil findings. Many of the fossils found date back to the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The most important fossil discovery was by Tony Gill when he found a giant prehistoric ichthyosaur fish lizard fossil found on the Charmouth ((lymeregis.com). However, the most important geographical aspect of Lyme is its Cobb. It is used as a seaport and today acts as purely a tourist destination. This is the most important part of the town in terms of Jane Austen’s novel Persuasion. “There is only one way onto the main part of The Cobb, entering past the new RNLI station on the right and the brand new slipway to your left. The slipway is used by all those launching boats into the water and removing them. In winter all the non-commercial boats are taken from their moorings for safe storage on land. As you pass the station you will see that there is a road round the harbour and also steps up to the outward wall. Walking the wall is the best way to see The Cobb, although the Health and Safety do their best to put you off with gaudy yellow notices. Meryl Streep managed to get to the end of The Cobb in the film The French Lieutenant’s Woman in bad weather so it can be done (although rumour has it that it was a stunt man dressed in her cloak). However, in Jane Austen’s Persuasion, Louisa Musgrove jumps off the steps, falls, and is concussed” ((http://www.lymeregistourism.co.uk).

Lyme : Jane Austen’s Background

Jane Austen visited Lyme at least three times during her life and it seems her fondness of the place grew each time she visited it. “Jane Austen visited Lyme in 1803 with her parents and her sister Cassandra. At the time, Lyme was trying to promote itself as a spa town in competition with Bath. A local entrepreneur had built a baths and on the beach there were bathing machines drawn by donkeys. Both Jane and Cassandra are reported to have enjoyed sea bathing as late as October” (Gillies and Neal). This helps to contribute to the description of the Cobb and the detailed surroundings of the town.

Lyme : Austen’s purpose

Austen’s love of scenery and use of scenery in her works shines through in a different light in the portion on Lyme in Persuasion. “The writing reveals Jane Austen without her fictional mask, a transitional figure rather awkwardly bending picturesque description, with its comparative views of ‘scenes,’ to the more romantic theme of the beloved, revisited, private place that reveals the touch of time” (Bodenheimer 620). This simply means this is the first time in any of her novels where Austen becomes entrenched in the scenery both in character in the story and personally. Austen’s description is detailed in the sense that she wants the reader to understand that she has a personal attachment to it. “The scenes in its neighbourhood, Charmouth, with its high grounds and extensive sweeps of country, and still more its sweet retired bay, backed by dark cliffs, where fragments of low rock among the sands make it the happiest spot for watching the flow of the tide, for sitting in unwearied contemplation; ­ the woody varieties of the cheerful village of Up Lyme, and, above all, Pinny, with its green chasms between romantic rocks, where the scattered forest trees and orchards of luxuriant growth declare that many a generation must have passed away since the first partial falling of the cliff prepared the ground for such a state, where a scene so wonderful and so lovely is exhibited, as may more than equal any of the resembling scenes of the far-framed Isle of Wight: these places must be visited, and visited again, to make the worth of Lyme understood”(Austen). In this particular passage Austen displays not only an ability to master poetry but has a sense of history that only a person who has studied the region would know.

Lyme : The Cobb

The Cobb, as seen in the film version of Persuasion, is a long peninsula that acted as a shipping harbor during Austen’s time. Austen describes the Cobb with great detail and almost makes it come to life as a character. “The walk to the Cobb, skirting round the pleasant little bay, which in the season is animated with bathing machines and company, the Cobb itself, its old wonders and new improvements, with the very beautiful line of cliffs stretching out to the east of the town, are what the stranger’s eye will seek; and a very strange stranger it must be, who does not see charms in the immediate environs of Lyme, to make him wish to know it better” (Austen). The Cobb, which is transformed into a character by Austen seems to play a huge part in the development of the relationship between Anne and Captain Wentworth. Without the scene at the Cobb their relationship would have not gotten to the point where it did at the end of the novel.

Works Cited

Austen, Jane.  Persuasion.  United Kingdom: Shoes and Ships and Sealing Wax Ltd., 2006.

Bodenheimer, Rosemarie.  “Looking at the Landscape in Jane Austen.”  Studies in English Literature 21.4  (1981):  605-623.

Gillies, Electra and Neal, Cathy. “Grand Tours: Taking the waters at Lyme Regis with Jane Austen” 2 Sept 2001. 14 April 2009. Independent Co.  <http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/grand-tours-taking-the-waters-at-lyme-regis-with-jane-austen-667895.html>

“History” Limeregis.com. 14 April 2009. <http://www.lymeregis.com/>

Lyme Regis Town Council. “The Cobb.” 2009. 14 April 2009. <http://www.lymeregistourism.co.uk/explore/cobb>

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Married women need to possess many characteristics, many of which are necessary not only in married life, but in general. Married women, like virgins and widows should be religious, modest, meek, compassionate, and affable. A married woman should also follow certain rules depending on her role at the moment. The Whole Duty of a Woman: Or a Guide to the Fair Sex describes a married woman as not only a wife, but a mistress and possibly a mother. Each title requires that the woman behave in distinct ways.

Wife
As a wife, a woman’s duties lie first on her husband, second on his reputation, and third on his fortune. To her husband a woman is responsible for keeping the flame in the relationship and should avoid jealousy. If her husband be the jealous kind then she should act indifferent. To a jealous husband a happy wife must be thinking of someone else and a sad wife must be thinking of him. A wife, also, if her husband should stray and confess, not reproach him. A woman should also keep her silence if a husband were to act poorly towards her. Kenrick also dedicated an entire chapter on how a woman should behave and why towards a husband that is a drunkard.

Mother
Many suggestions for the way a married woman should act lie heavily upon how they behave towards their children. According to Wollstonecraft, the mother should nurse her child and know when to stop using baby-talk. She should also refrain from performing certain actions to get her child to stop crying, such as scaring the family pet. From this the child learns that his mother means nothing and it is simply a trick, so he could potentially learn how to lie to and trick others. A mother must provide a good example to her children so that they learn to be moral. She should answer questions when asked them by her children. She also must only scold them when they are or could be truly causing harm to others or lying. A mother should read to her children, particularly hymns so that they learn religious sentiments as well as morals. It is also the parents’ responsibility to help the child achieve the art of giving good impressions and also how to properly think.

Mistress
As a mistress of a house, a woman must be capable and possess the skill of governing it. She must not fall into laziness. According to Kenrick, if a woman cannot manage the household, her position in the family can be questioned. Her husband (as she ages) may find her unappealing if she doesn’t know how to supervise the home and own more skills than simply how to dress and behave attractively.

The Conduct of Married Women in Jane Austen’s Novels
We see bits of these ideas in Austen’s works. Although she does tend to poke fun at certain aspects of conduct literature, she also seems to follow some of the ideas (for married women at least). In Sense and Sensibility we view how Mrs. Dashwood works on the finances and grocery lists for their home. Here we also see how Charlotte, after marrying Mr. Collins, decorates and makes use of her new home. Pride and Prejudice shows us a very silly Mrs. Bennett who nags at her husband for seemingly irrational things. Mrs. Bennett also indulges her children to an extreme amount, which in turn causes the youngest to act foolishly.

Sources:

Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Barnes and Noble Classics, 2003.

Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. New York: Barnes and Noble Classics, 2004.

Kenrick, William. The Whole Duty of a Woman: Or a Guide to the Fair Sex. London: T. Read, 1737.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. Thoughts on the Education of Daughters: with Reflections of Female Conduct in the More Important Duties of Life. London: J. Johnson, 1787.

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Authors today are not uncommon. We see new authors emerge all the time. In Austen’s day, however, being an author was not something that one just decided to take up one day. Authors in the 18t^h and 19^th centuries, especially women authors, had to make a very strong and conscience effort to get their work into print. Austen came from a family that valued reading and writing highly which was a huge advantage for her. She began at a very early age to read and experiment with writing (Kelly). Had she been in a family where everyone’s help was needed to carry out daily life, she may not have become the beloved author we know her as today.

Austen was a rare writer in her day. The literary world was dominated by upper class men who had access to any and every literary work that they wanted. However, in the late 18^th century more and more female authors began to emerge. In an effort to avoid fame and/or ridicule about her writing, Austen published anonymously choosing to let her works speak for themselves (Kaplan). Austen focused on a new kind of novel in which women characters were the main focus and events in the novel centered on what was going on in the lives of middle and upper class people in England (Nazar). Her choice to portray women characters challenged the norms of the literary world of the day.

As Austen began to emerge as an author, the view of authors began to change. Austen was at the forefront of the new view which considered authors as “original genius (es)” (Haynes). Authors of the late 18^th century began to be romanticized unlike any generation of authors before. The author’s meaning, not the reader’s interpretation of the writing, was highly debated, and became the central focus of literary study. People saw authors as ” a creator of a unique written text, for which he or she exercised sole responsibility and deserved full credit” (Haynes). This view glorified authors and raised them to an almost super-human status that lasted for nearly two centuries. An author was regarded not simply as someone with the talent to write, but as a person who was somehow wiser and more in tuned to the ways of society. Even the livelihood of authors began to changed during this time. With more people reading everyday, and more people believing that authors really had something to offer, they became an honorable (or at least more honored) member of society at large (Haynes).

The romanticizing of authors lasted up until the 1950s and 1960s where a shift from the author’s perspective gave way to a focus on how the reader felt and interpreted the text. Often, though, authors are still looked up to in our society and regarded as people of particular talent. In fact, the Merriam-Webster online dictionary still defines an author as, “one that originates or creates” (merriam-webster.com). The idea that authors are creating something unique and worthwhile came from Austen’s day and has persisted ever since.

Works Cited

Haynes, Christine. “Reassessing ‘Genius’ in Studies of Authorship: The State of the Discipline.”

     Book History. 8 (2005): 287-320. Project Muse. Northern Kentucky University Lib.,

     Highland Heights, KY. 23 March 2009. <http://muse.jhu.edu>.

Kaplan, Deborah. “Achieving Authority: Jane Austen’s First Published Novel.”

     Nineteenth Century Fiction. 37 (1983): 531-551. JSTOR. Northern Kentucky

     University Lib., Highland Heights, KY. 24 March 2009. <http://www.jstor.org>.

Kelly, Gary. Jane Austen. 23 March 2009. <http://people.brandeis.edu/~teuber/austenbio.html>.

Merriam-Webster. Dictionary and Thesaurus - Merriam-Webster Online. 26 March 2009.

     <http://www.merriam-webster.com/>.

Nazar, Hina. “The Imagination Goes Visiting: Jane Austen, Judgement, and the Social.”

Nineteenth Century Literature. 59 (2004): 145-178. JSTOR. Northern Kentucky

University Lib., Highland Heights, KY. 23 March 2009. <http://www.jstor.org>.

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History

One main point of contention among clergy members historically was whether or not a college education was necessary for ordination. Most chose to get an education, which was available to students through the main universities as well as through institutions specifically focused on the clergy. However, bishops were leery of colleges for ordinands because there was thought to be much corruption within their walls and many were “suspicious of their activities” (Burns 532). There were a large number of students who attended the less specific institutions. During Austen’s time “nearly half of the undergraduates of Oxford and Cambridge were reading for holy orders” (Collins, 182). The favorable perception of an educated clergy grew, and “the early twentieth century saw a renewed commitment to the creation of a fully graduate clergy” (Burns 531).

Many clergy hopefuls chose education because of the distinction and advantages it provided. One way people could distinguish between an educated clergyman and a clergyman who did not attend college was through his title. Until the 18th century, a clerk who had been to a university was called a Magister and a clerk who had not been educated was called a Dominus. Also, many colleges were able to help their graduates find positions.

Finding a position could be very difficult. The individual who founded, built, or endowed the church was the church’s patron, and as the patron they had the right to request the bishop to send a suitable person to be the clerk. This right (advowson) was passed down to the patron’s heirs and could be bought and sold like any property. It is reasonable that a patron would often request a relative for the position. The only requirements were that the clergymen be over 21, of legitimate birth, and usually already ordained by a local bishop as a deacon or priest in order to celebrate mass and be able to hear confession.

A clergyman’s income was directly related to the wealth of his parish. There were two levels of the priesthood which determined how much of the parish’s wealth he would receive. A Vicar received only the small tithes which included 10% of newborn animals, wool, garden and other produce of the parish. A Rector received small tithes as well as 10% of crops, grain, hay and timber.

The clergy’s position included more than just Sunday sermons. “Clergy were managers of the poor: as Magistrates, Poor Law Guardians, administrators of charities, founders and managers of schools, political activists, and so on” (McLeod 518). They had many duties in running their parishes, finding themselves the authority in many situations. This authority was often negatively viewed by the parishioners. The poorer members of the parish saw the clergy living in grand rectories and felt that the clergy administered laws that were class-biased.

Clergy in Austen’s Novels

Jane Austen often gives the clergy a presence in her novels. Edward Farrars, Mr. Collins, Mr. Elton, and Edmund Bertram are characters associated with the clergy in the novels we have read thus far. However, Edmund shows a different side of the clergy compared to Austen’s other works. “Edmund is her only clergyman out of seven who is serious about his duties and responsibilities. Of the others one is a fool, one is vulgar, and four are merely said to be clergymen” (Collins 181). Austen often has a sense of humor when it comes to the clergy (easily seen in her character of Mr. Collins in Pride and Prejudice), but Edmund is handled differently. Edmund is a more secular idea of a clergyman for Austen’s time and has more realistic, sincere feelings.

Perhaps Austen included the clergy so frequently because the profession was so widely sought by men during her time. Two of the characters we have read about long for the church as a career, seeing it as way to be free of their families and make a comfortable living. Austen also touches on the feelings sometimes felt by the parishioners of the time. Mr. Collins shows an excessive longing for wealth and upper-class acceptance while lacking the compassion and sincere concern for the poor and needy in his parish.

Sources:

Burns, Arthur. “Nineteenth-Century Anglican Theological Training: The Redbrick Challenge.” Victorian Studies 42.3 (2000) 531-533
Collins, Barbara Bail. “Jane Austen’s Victorian Novel.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction 4.3 (December 1949) 175-185
McLeod, Hugh. “Rural Society and the Anglican Clergy 1815-1914: Encountering and Managing the Poor.” Victorian Studies 49.3 (Spring 2007) 518-520
“Clergy of the Church of England.” Family Search. 20 March 2009

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In England during the 18^th century, many of the laws were considered common law, which means they are not legislative laws, but instead derive from customs.

Inheritance

During this time, the common law rule of inheritance was based on primogeniture, which, according to Merriam-Webster is defined as, “An exclusive right of inheritance belonging to the eldest son.” However, there were some exceptions to this common law, as noted in Law, Land, and Family: Aristocratic Inheritance in England by Eileen Spring. She states, “By common law rules of inheritance women in English landed society fell into two classes. Some were altogether excluded from inheriting; others were entitled to succeed the family estate.” Although some women were entitled to inheritance, most were not.

The common law of inheritance most often restricted women from receiving their inheritance, therefore, forcing them to rely on marriage in order to maintain their livelihood. Because these laws and customs of eighteenth century forced women to rely on marriage in order to survive, women became even more dependent on men.Brinjikji, Hiam. Property Rights of Women. 27 March 2009. <http://www.umd.umich.edu/casl/hum/eng/classes/434/geweb/PROPERTY.htm>.

Property

During the 18^th century, men were given almost exclusive rights to property; the property rights of women were mostly dependant upon their marital status. According to the article, Property Rights of Women by Hiam Brinjikji, “Once women married, their property rights were governed by English common law, which required that the property women took into a marriage, or acquired subsequently, be legally absorbed by their husbands. Furthermore, married women could not make wills or dispose of any property without their husbands’ consent.”

If a married couple were to separate, the wife was usually left with nothing, even if the separation was initiated by the husband. This is because the property law did not provide any rights to women regarding marital property. Once a woman was married, the only legal way in which to she could reclaim her property was if she became a widow. However, women were able to inherit property, and never married were able to maintain control over all of their property and inheritance.

Laws in Austen’s Novels

We see the unfairness of the laws of inheritance and laws of property appear in many of Austen’s works, but it is especially clear in Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility.

In Pride and Prejudice we see that Mr. Bennet’s inheritance would have gone to his cousin, Mr. Collins, instead of his wife and daughters. It was not his wish for the inheritance to go to Mr. Collins, but it was common law that it had to go to a male heir. It is unfortunate because once Mr. Bennet dies, his wife and five daughters will be poor and homeless.

Another example would be the Dashwoods in Sense and Sensibility. Mr. Dashwood’s inheritance was left to him in a way that prevented him from dividing it between his families. Therefore, by law, his estate was left to his son, John Dashwood, and we saw that Mr. Dashwood’s wife and daughters were left with barely enough to live on.

Overall, Austen did an excellent job portraying the hardships of inheritance laws through these two novels. It is clear that laws in the 18^th century were usually not fair because they were based on common law. Women especially were discriminated against the law, and had almost no legal rights.

Works Cited

Merriam-Webster. Dictionary and Thesaurus - Merriam-Webster Online. 26 March 2009. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/>.

Spring, Eileen. Law, Land, and Family: Aristocratic Inheritance in England. Google Books. 26 March 2009. <http://books.google.com/books?id=dRFhegmpIakC&printsec=frontcover&dq=primogeniture+laws+england+explained&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA10,M1>.

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In the 18^th Century dance was common and integral part of life. At this time dance was important in both social and political settings. The art of moving gracefully was one hard sought and graceful movement was the highest status symbol to be attained. Dance was important part of daily life in for the upper class and the new and growing middle class. Dance was greatly admired for its difficulty and fluidity. During the 18^th Century dance was used as a tool to make judgements and class distinctions. The ability to dance, and dance well was something to be admired and attained. A true gentleman or lady would be able to perform various dances with great skill and poise. Dancing was a way to socialize, elevate one’s social status, and even to court a female.

There were two major categories of dance in the 18^th Century, country and court.  Country and court dances shared a tendency for symmetrical floor patterns. Dancers traced overlapping and intertwined shapes eventually ending at their beginning spot. Country dances had simple steps and were danced by a several couples at a time. In country dances couples dances in squares, circles, or columns. These dances were performed for entertainment at country balls and dinner parties. Although court and country dances were similar in style there was a distinction made between them and in order to reach and elevated social status one would have to achieve greatness at court dancing.

Dance was taught by dance masters who also taught a strict code of etiquette. Ettiquette and dance were considered partners and one could not perform without the other. The techniques and etiquette taught by the dancing masters was actually quite simple. A person of fashion who was well bred should appear poised at all times. Perhaps this is why the Kitty and Lydia of Pride and Prejudice were often sneered at by Caroline Bingley, they were rarely, if ever, poised. At all times while dancing men and women were to be conscious of their body and posture, standing or moving the wrong could be dangerous to one’s reputation because how someone carried themselves was always being judged.

Many began lessons in dance, etiquette, and deportment with dance masters at a very young age. Children generally entered the public and formal life around the age of ten and were expected to behave as adults. Children were often dressed as adults and forced to wear corsets to maintain good posture to reinforce the correct movement patterns and etiquette.

The Minuet was the most popular dance of the 18^th Century. The minuet, when done correctly, appeared effortless, but in actuality it required intense body control. Clothing was an important part of dance at the time, especially the Minuet. The pattern of movement highlighted the clothing and the clothing helped to dictate the movement. Other common dances included the sarabande and gigue.

In the late part of the 18^th Century dance began to see a movement from partner dance to group dances. Dances of the time had maps or directional pages. These maps contained the movements of the dances, men, women, and pairs. The patterns were often geometric and mirrored. Dancers would make their way around the dance floor and normally end up back at their beginning position. The patterns of movement shown on the page often appear in a form that appears similar to musical notes.

Many of the steps that were common in these dance styles are the origin of classical ballet. Steps such as the chassé were developed from common steps in 18^th century dance. The chassé, for example, was derived from the common step of the same name in which a woman performed a passing curtsy.

In the 18^th century dance was an extremely important part of life. People attended balls and small parties frequently. In society those who could dance and dance well were revered in society. It was common to learn to dance at a very young age and with dance people learned a certain type of etiquette and decorum for moving in society.

Hixon, Sarah. The Social and Political Importance of Dance. Sarah Hixon Dance Maker and Video Artist.

        <www.sarahhixon.com>

Maginnis, Tara. 18th Century Movement. The Costumer’s Manifesto.

        <http://www.costumes.org/history/100pages/18THMOVE.HTM>

Late 18th Century Social Dance.

         <http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/dihtml/diessay5.html>

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